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What
is Gaelic?
A
Brief History of the Irish Language
by
Brian Ó Dubhghaill
There
are actually three "Gaelic" languages—Irish
Gaelic,
Scots Gaelic and Manx Gaelic—which together comprise
the Goidelic branch of the Celtic language family. (Welsh,
Cornish and Breton form the Brythonic branch.)
Irish
Gaelic, more simply referred to as Irish, has been spoken
in Ireland since approximately 300-350 B.C. The language later
spread to Scotland and the Isle of Man, where dialectical
differences gradually developed and, by the 17th century,
resulted in three distinct languages.
Writing
in Irish began around the 5th century, coinciding with the
arrival of Christianity. The earliest form was Ogham (sometimes
referred to as the "tree-alphabet"), a series of
lines and notches cut into the edge of standing stones and
other grave markings. The writing of history, law, literature
and poetry probably began around the 7th century (at the start
of the proverbial "Golden Age," before the coming
of the Vikings in the 9th century), when Ireland was known
as the "island of saints and scholars." The language
of this period is known as Old Irish (600-900), followed by
Middle Irish (900-1200).
Early
Modern Irish coincides with the age of bardic poetry (1200-1600),
an era in which aristocratic Gaelic society flourished and
a standardized literary dialect, Classical Irish, developed
under the patronage of Gaelic and Norman-Gaelic nobles. The
Elizabethan conquest of Ireland (c. 1600) put an end to this
Gaelic aristocracy and the institutions that supported a coherent
system of Gaelic law and classical literature.
Although
English became the language of government, politics, schooling,
etc., Irish continued to be spoken by a majority in Ireland
through the mid-19th century. Literature in Irish also continued,
taking the form of accentual poetry, folk poetry and songs.
While a gradual decline in Irish-language use continued from
the 17th century onward, it was not until the early 1800's
and the onslaught of the Irish Famine (1845-1849) that the
language faced serious decline. For instance, it is estimated
that 100% of Irish children living in the Gaeltacht (i.e.,
the Irish-speaking regions) in 1800 acquired Irish as their
first language. By 1860, that figure had dropped to less than
5%. (1)
Rapid
decline continued throughout the second half of the 19th century
and would likely have resulted in the early death of the language,
if not for the advent of the Gaelic League, founded in 1893.
Its mission was to promote historic Irish literature and to
cultivate a modern literature in Irish. The early work of
the Gaelic League coincided with the surge of the Celtic Revival,
embodied by such writers as William Butler Yeats, Lady Gregory
and John Millington Synge.
At
this time, Irish came to be perceived as a reservoir of Irish
myth, legend and folklore, and the bedrock of Irish culture.
The cultural revival, of which the language movement was a
central part, was essential to the political separatist movement
which lead to the Easter Uprising of 1916, the Anglo-Irish
War, and the establishment of the Irish Free State (1922),
later to become the Republic of Ireland. Due to its pivotal
role in the rise of Irish nationalism, Irish was declared
and remains the first official language of the Republic.
The
Irish Language in the 20th Century
Following
the establishment of the Irish Free State, the Government
made it a national objective to bolster existing Irish-speaking
regions, prevent further decline of the language and to reestablish
Irish as the everyday vernacular of the people. The results
of these efforts have been mixed at best.
Several
reasons can be cited for the failure to halt the decline of
Irish. After Irish independence had been achieved, people
who had previously worked on behalf of the language revival
looked to the government to restore Irish as the national
language. Membership in the Gaelic League fell drastically.
For instance, while there were 819 League branches in 1922,
that number fell to 139 within two years. (2)
Another
problem was that the government put the entire burden of reviving
the language squarely on the education system. Instruction
in Irish was compulsory for all students, but outside of the
schools—in public and private institutions—the language
was rarely spoken. The spelling reform of 1945, which simplified
the language and adopted Roman letter forms in place of the
Gaelic script, also alienated an older generation of Irish
speakers, many of whom had difficulty or otherwise objected
to reading news and literature in the new style.
Attitudes
about the language were also undoubtedly a factor. In the
years during and after the Irish Famine, the language was
associated with the plight of the rural poor and was viewed
as an impediment to progress and economic improvement. Common
sayings such as "Irish will butter no bread" or
"Irish never sold a pig" reflected a conviction
held by many that English was necessary to get ahead, particularly
for emigrants.
Despite
the efforts of the Gaelic League and the government, economic
pressures and changes brought by industrialization continued
to influence both the attitudes and language use of native
Irish speakers in the rural areas of western Ireland. Where
farming and fishing had been the topics of everyday conversation,
changing work conditions (particularly in the 1960's) introduced
new terminology and concepts more easily discussed in English.
In addition, the senior, managerial positions usually went
to English speakers from outside the Gaeltacht, reinforcing
the old notion that English was the language of opportunity.
(2)
Éamonn
Ó Dónaill, a native Irish speaker, teacher and
writer, argues that the root of this problem is older than
the Irish Famine, going back to the time of the Elizabethan
Conquest:
Le
Teitheadh na nIarlaí thit an tóin as an chóras
Ghaelach agus fágadh na Gaeil gan cumhacht pholaitiúil
ná eacnamaíoch. Níl aon fhorbairt ná
rath i ndán do theanga mura labhraíonn daoine
le cumhacht den chineál seo í; cailleann sí
a stádas agus feictear do dhaoine gur fearr í
a chaitheamh i dtraipisí mar nach bhfuil aon rud
le gnóthú aisti...
With
the Flight of the Earls the bottom fell out of the Gaelic
system and the Irish were left without political or economic
power. There is no development or prosperity in store for
a language if people with power of this sort do not speak
it; it loses its status and it appears to people that it's
better to discard the language if there is nothing to be
gained from it... (2)
This
problem, essentially one of political, social and economic
inequity between a linguistic minority and the dominant, English-speaking
majority, persists today. Many Anglo-Irish politicians, while
giving lip service to the language and embellishing speeches
with the "cúpla focal" (i.e., "a couple
of words") are largely indifferent to Irish or Irish-speakers.
The same can be said for many scholars, particularly a new
breed of revisionist Irish historians, who conspicuously omit
any mention of the language in anthologies and other collected
works.
Ireland's
newfound economic prosperity has not necessarily helped either.
In the west, where tourism draws thousands of foreigners per
year, English continues to encroach and the Gaeltacht continues
to recede. The popularity of summer homes among wealthy Dubliners,
Germans and Americans, has raised the price of land to eight
times the annual income of the average local inhabitant, making
it difficult for Irish speakers to own land. Ireland's improved
economic standing also means that she stands to lose millions
in EU subsidies, which will hit western counties (i.e., the
Gaeltacht) the hardest.
The
urgency of the current situation situation goes unheeded by
most, even within the Gaeltacht. It has been proposed by some
that a major new national initiative is needed to address
the problem of language loss in the Gaeltacht, but, according
to Gearóid Ó Tuathaigh, the chairman of Údarás
na Gaeltachta, there is no political will to undertake such
action.
The
Future of Irish: Cause for Hope?
There
is no denying that Irish, like all of the Celtic languages,
remains endangered. But it would be wrong to suggest that
no progress has been made.
Because
of the language movement and the teaching of Irish in the
school system, many people have learned Irish as a second
language. Census figures show that up to one million people
(30% of the population of the Republic) claim to have some
competency with the language. An additional 146,000 Irish
speakers live in Northern Ireland and as many as 50,000 speakers
are estimated to be living in American cities such as New
York, Boston and Chicago. These figures do not reflect language
use, however. Of those Irish speakers living in the Republic,
recent census figures show that 71,000 speak the language
daily—21,000 in the Gaeltacht and 50,000 in other parts
of the country. (3)
Despite
governmental complacency, language advocates have also succeeded
in pushing forward important developments and innovations,
such as the "Gaelscoileanna" or Irish-medium schools,
started by grassroots organizations of parents, "Raidió
na Gaeltachta" (Irish-language radio, started as a pirate
station in the early 70's), "Teilifís na Gaeilge"
(Irish-language television), numerous print publications (Foinse,
Cuisle, Comhar, Lá, Saol)
and even weekly e-zines (Cumasc, An Teanga Bheo).
All
in all, the health of the Irish language remains a question
of perspective. Is it a glass half empty or half full?
Perhaps
it's both. Language advocates continue to work with energy
and determination. And the lurking concern about the future
remains as well.
It
is this latter sensibility that Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill,
acclaimed Irish-language poet, articulates in an essay published
a few years ago, "Why I Write in Irish: The Corpse That
Sits Up and Talks Back" (The New York Times Book
Review, 1/8/95):
"I
found myself humming the air of 'Cill Cais,' that lament for
both the great woods of Ireland and the largess of the Gaelic
order that they had come to symbolize:
Cad
a dhéanfaimid feasta gan adhmad?
Tá deireadh na gcoillte ar lár.
Níl trácht ar Chill Cais ná a theaghlach
is ní chlingfear a chling go brách.
What
will we do now without wood
Now that the woods are laid low?
Cill Cais or its household are not mentioned
and the sound of its bell is no more."
1. Fitzgerald, 1984; cited in Máirtín
Ó Murchú, "Historical Overview of the Position
of Irish," a paper presented at the symposium "The
Less Widely Taught Languages of Europe," St. Patrick's
College, Dublin, Ireland, April 23-25, 1987; proceedings edited
by Liam Mac Mathúna. (back to text for footnote
1)
2.
Éamonn Ó Dónaill, "Amharc neamhléannta
ar staid na Gaeilge faoi láthair," Oghma
7, 1995. (back to text for footnote
2a, footnote 2b, footnote
2c)
3.
Figures originally published in Cuisle. (back
to text for footnote 3)
To find our more about the Irish language, see our Guide
to Online and Offline Learning Resources.
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